The word millwright did not originate until around the 15^th century when the words ‘mill’ and ‘wright’, meaning worker, were combined to describe those who worked on mills. Until this point, millwork had been completed by the carpenter and the two skills shared similar traits, to such a degree that the phrase ‘carpenter’ was synonymous with ‘millwright’.

In this pre-industrial period, mills were mainly built of timber, though there were wind tower mills that were built out of stone where it was readily available. The first type of mill recorded in Britain was the watermill. Watermills had been in use in Roman times, and many are listed in the Domesday Book of 1086. These mills were similar in structure to houses, but containing milling machinery including millstones. A watermill was listed in Mapledurham, Berkshire in the book of 1086. There is still a watermill there today, however it is a rebuild of a mill that stood there in the 15th-century, with the oldest timber used in the mill dating from 1646. To power a watermill the millwright originally constructed a horizontal waterwheel that would directly power the millstones. This later developed into the vertical waterwheel, which would turn the pit wheel and power the millstones. The waterwheel would be designed to suit the water supply, usually following an undershot or overshot type. This is what we see today. In all, the millwright needed a significant amount of craftsmanship to construct a watermill in this period.

Millwrights also saw the potential to use wind as a source of power to produce flour in areas where water was not readily available. The earliest written reference to a windmill in Britain was in the 12^th century. The windmills that millwrights built in the medieval period, and up until the industrial revolution, usually followed the simple design of a post mill. This was a mill whose body, which contained all the machinery, was mounted on an open vertical post. It had four cloth-covered sails and a long tailpole which was used to turn the structure into the wind so it could begin working.

This type of mill was relatively simple in structure compared to the later tower and smock mills. However, this does not take away from the early millwright’s skill. Though simple, the post mill demonstrates that the millwright of the pre-industrial period had an instinctive understanding of mechanics and power transmission. The post mill proved to be a reliable structure, and there are post mills that still stand today. An example of this is the post mill at Bourn, which was standing in 1636. Unlike some post mills from this period, Bourn still has an open trestle without a roundhouse. Although the mill is now on the Heritage at Risk Register, there are plans in place to restore the mill by Historic England, with funding from the SPAB.

As Britain became increasingly industrialized from the mid-18^th century, the role of the millwright also changed. The main type of mill being built developed from the traditional wind- and watermill to the more industrial factory mill, which was powered first by water, through the waterwheel or turbine, and later by steam. Around this time there was also a shift away from the millstone as the main means for grinding grain. This was deemed inefficient, and the introduction of newer technology led to the rise of the roller mill in Britain and the decline of the millstone for the mass production of flour. This mill at Westminster Bridge replaced 11 of its 20 pairs of millstones with a roller plant and this meant it could produce flour more efficiently.

The traditional millwright assisted with the transition to the factory mill as they had the skills necessary to install the gearing. But as technology advanced, and the ability to cast iron became easier, mills became more complex to build. Iron began featuring heavily within the construction and gearing. This development brought a new set of skills to learn for the millwright, and the profession became highly specialised.

Not all the mills built in this period were factory mills; newly built wind- and watermills still appeared. Some mills in this period took on the newer innovations of the industrial period, such as a steam motor to power them or a small roller mill. This meant they could mill consistently without relying on wind or water and they could survive against competition from larger milling companies. However, not all mills could afford or adapt to this technology, and they were therefore left behind. There was also a change in the type of traditional windmill, with the smock mill becoming increasingly common. These mills had no tail pole, instead they used a fantail. This was a small wind-wheel set at a right angle to the sails to turn just the cap of the windmill to face the direction of the wind. This replaced the manual tailpole that was previously used to turn the whole mill into the wind. The introduction of newer technology for traditional mills is further detailed here.

Millwrights had the chance to increase their skills during this period and many did, and this may have led them down a more specialised career path. Some millwrights became ‘Millwright Engineers’ or even just ‘Engineers’. Despite this, they were likely to continue their work on traditional mills in urban and rural areas, even if they could expand their work.

During the 19^th and early-20^th centuries, the number of mills that could facilitate mass production increased, in line with increases in the population of Britain. This caused a decline in the number of traditional mills; in turn, the number of practising millwrights reduced. Many of those mills which were once important parts of the community  became derelict or disused. Over time, a number of these mills would cease to exist due to a lack of care for their structure.

War could also be blamed in part for the decline in both the number of traditional millwrights and mills during the twentieth century. Not only were many millwrights conscripted to fight in both the First and Second World Wars, but the war destroyed many mills.  Though the supply of food or gunpowder was of importance to the war effort, some mills were used for training soldiers and target practice and were therefore either damaged or destroyed. Other mills were destroyed if they were in a position of strategic importance. This caused many mills to be lost, and in most cases, there was no attempt to rebuild them. The Holman Bros. millwrighting firm was just one of many firms affected by the outbreak of war. Here is an insight into how they were affected.

Not all mills were lost, a good number were rescued. A movement to save these mills ensued from the mid-20^th century and those remaining traditional millwrights had a key part to play in the repair of these structures. This would all add to traditional milling history. The SPAB (Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings) set up its Mills Section in 1929 following a call from the public to save what was left of our milling heritage. It later changed its brief to include watermills in 1946. As the main organisation for mill repair in Britain, they funded the work to be done through appeals. This provided work for the few millwrighting firms who still existed, maintaining their trade by travelling across the country to repair wind and watermills. Though this declined following the Second World War, the focus for the millwright remained on repairing and maintaining traditional mills as part of our national heritage.

The profession of millwrighting has slowly been in decline as the number of traditional mills has slowly reduced, due to factors such as a decreased interest in mills and the retirement of working millwrights. Those professional millwrights who are still practising focus solely on the traditional wind- and watermills that are still standing. In the late 20^th century, the interest in preserving historic mills by local authorities began to decrease, likely due to the issue of funding. In 1994 the Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF), now known as the National Heritage Lottery Fund, was established. This awarded funding to those mills that needed repairing. However, only a small number of millwrights were in the position to take on this work. Before the Heritage Lottery Fund, mills had not always been repaired according to regional designs. Funding from the HLF allowed this to be corrected, specifically on Kent windmill sweeps (sails).

As of 2021, there are 15 millwrighting contacts, including both millwrighting firms and lone millwrights, on the SPAB Millwrights Directory. Though there are also many competent volunteer millwrights, the craft was placed on the Heritage Craft Association’s Red List for Endangered Crafts in 2019. The HCA has predicted that for the craft to survive, at least 20+ professional millwrights are needed. Steps towards this have been made by the SPAB through their Millwrighting Fellowship. This Fellowship offers a one-year training opportunity for an experienced craftsperson to learn the additional skills of millwrighting. In the long term, the society hopes to establish a more comprehensive training programme for those wishing to enter the sector from a more junior starting point.

Though there are hopes to address the current state of the millwrighting profession, there are barriers that currently stop it from progressing. The sector is currently poorly funded. Acquiring funding for projects typically requires an application process, and the funding is not always guaranteed. On top of that, the wage that the profession of millwrighting is currently earning is not high relative to the time or skill it takes to complete high-quality repairs. This often means that a millwright may have to turn to restore other heritage structures to maintain a steady income, and in some cases, these individuals may even leave the profession altogether. Apprenticeships are also difficult to come by, and usually an apprentice would have to have experience within a trade, like carpentry, before becoming a millwright. Hopefully, the issues with training and funding can be addressed and a healthy number of millwrights can be trained. This would reinvigorate the profession and in turn maintain the preservation of our national milling heritage.